Meerut
On 6th May, 1857 A.D.i5 out of 90 Indian soldiers at Meerut refused to bite the greased cartridges with thier teeth. These 85 soldiers were court-martailled and imprisoned for 10 years. They were srripped off their uniforms in the presence of the entire Indian crowd. It was too much of a disgrace and this incident sent a wave of indignation. On 10th May, 1857, the Indian soldiers at Meerut broke into revolt. They released their companions and murdered a few European officers. On the night of 10th May, the mutineers marched to Delhi and reached there on 11th May.
Delhi
The revolutionaries reached from Meerut to Delhi on the 11th May, 1857 and the small British garrison at Delhi was not able to resist and consequently fell into their hands within 2 days. The Mughal Emperior Bahadhur Shah Zfar, was proclaimed Emperior of India. In order to regain Delhi, Sir John Lawrence sent a strong British force commanded by John Nicholson. After a long siege of 4 months, the British recovered Delhi in September, 1857A.D. The Mughal Emperior Bhadur Shah Zfar was captured, his two sons and a grandson were shot dead before his eyes and he was sent to Rangoon where he died in the year 1862 A.D.
Kanpur
At Kanpur, the struggle for independence was lead by Nana Sahib Dandu Pant (the adopted son of Be Peshwa Baji Rao-||) . A number of British fell into his hands and he showed great kindness to them. But, when he heard about the inhuman attitude of Gen.O’Neil towards the Indians, he became very furious killed all the British. Gen. Havelock captured Kanpur after defeating Nana Sahib in a hotly contested battle on June 17, 1857. Later on , Nana Sahib with the help of Tantya Topi, recaptured Kanpur in November, 1857 but not for a long time and British defeated them against in a fierce war from December 1 to 6, 1857. Nana Sahib fled towards Nepal, where he probably died, while Tantya Topi migrated to Kalpi.
Write a note on the following events of war of independence: Lucknow, Jhansi and Gwalior, and Bihar.
Lucknow
The struggle for independence at Lucknow was led by Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah. The Chief Commissioner, Sir Henry Lawrence, sought refuge with 1000 English and 700 Indian soldiers inside the Residency. The Indians didn’t make any concession and killed most of the Englishmen, including Sir Henry Lawrence and the notorious English Gen. O’Neil. At last, the commander-in-Chief General Collin Campbell, marched towards Lucknow and captured it after a fierce battle in March 1858.
Jhansi and Gwalior
The leader of revolutionaries in Central India was Rani Luxmi Bai of Jhansi in March 1858 but the brave Luxmi Bai kept the British General unnerved for quite some time. She, with the help of Jantya Tope created problems for the troops. Both faught many successful battles against the British. A fierce battle was faught between the British and the revolutionaries under Rani Luxmi Bai and Tantya Tope from June 11 to June 18, 1858 A.D. But the personal velour of Rani and Tantya Tope couldn’t match the resources at the command of the British. Tantya Tope was betrayed by the Gwalior Chief Man Singh and fell into the hands of British. He was subsequently hanged on April 18, 1859.
Bihar
In Bihar, the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, a Zamindar of Jagdeshpur. Though he was 80 years old, he played a prominent part in the revolt. He fought the British in Bihar and then joined Nana Sahib’s forces and took part in various encounters with the English in Oudh and Central India. He died on April 27, 1858, leaving behind a glorious record of valour and bravery.
Suppression of Revolt:
The revolt of 1857 lasted for more than a year. It was suppressed by the middle of 1858, in July 8, 1858, 14 months after the outbreak at Meerut, peace was finally proclaimed by fanning.
Reasons behind failure of war of independence
Following are the main reasons behind the failure of war of independence:
1) Limited Rebellion:
Area of revolt remained limited
Even complete North Indian didn’t part in it.
It was limited by some neighborly territories.
2) Better equipped Britishers:
The British had better resources than the rebels.
Gradually, the English army had a lot of resources.
The telegraph proved very much useful for the English.
3) The native ruler’s “Misgivings”:
Many native rulers were with the British.
The rulers of Patilia, Jinol, Hyderabad, etc supported the British at all.
4) Opposition from Intelligentsia:
The Indian intelligentsia didn’t support the rebels.
The revolt could neither be organised nor fed on intellegentual and emotional ground.
5) Lacking of strategy:
Primary source of the failure of the war is planned efforts.
Absence of central organisation and inferiority in general ship, military skills, strategy and discipline of rebel as compared to the Britishers.
6) Lack of leadership:
Absence of capable leaders
None of the leader are capable and good commanders.
There is no one in those leaders who are willing to guide their people in good direction.
7) Diplomacy of English:
*The Britishers succeeded through their good leadership and well trained army. And well trained military commanders like Neil, Nicoloson, Havelock and Huge Rose.
The diplomatic skills of the British were also responsible for thier success.
Consequences of war of independence
The consequences of war of independence are as follows:
1) End of the East India company’s rule:
Crown took over the change from Company.
Secretary of State of India was appointed who reported to British Parliament.
2) Queen Victoria’s Proclamation:
The transfer of government was done on 1 November, 1958 at Allahabad.
Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India, promised not to intervene in religious and social matters, would bring equality, pardon soldiers, best for Indian Industries.
3) End of Mughals and Peshwa:
Bahadur Shah-|| went to Yangon and Nana Sahib went to Nepal. Two foes of British came to an end.
4) Relations with Princely States:
Policy of Annexation and Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned.
5) Policy of Divide & Rule:
After 1858, British started Divide & Rule policy i.e Caste against Caste, Princes against people and Hindus against Muslims.
6) Winding gulf between Hindus & Muslims:
British sowed seeds of hatred between Hindus and Muslims.
7) Racial Antagonism:
British believed that they were superior and maintained distance from Indians. Railways, Parks, hotels, etc had seats " Reserved for Europeans only".
8) Increased racial bitterness:
British believed that Indians aren’t trust worthy and remodeled the structure of Indian government based on an idea of a superior race.
9) Religious changes:
British rulers declared that they would not intervene in religious affairs, customs and traditions.
10) Foreign policy:
Indian foreign policy was decided by British within two aims:
a. Protection of its Indian empire.
b. Expansion of British economic and commercial interests.
11) Changes in Army:
To avoid another uprising, Indian army was recognized after 1858 in the following matter:
**a) No. of Indian troops was decreased to 1,40,000 and no. of Eurpean troops was increased to 65,000.
**b) **European troops were kept in key locations.
**c) **Policy of excluding Indians from officer positions was strictly followed.
**c) **Weapons were never placed under the charge of Indians.
**d) **Divide & Rile policy was practiced during the recruitment in the army. Discouraged nationalism through caste/religion discrimination in regiments.
**e) **Soldiers were not allowed to read newspapers & journals.
12) Economic exploitation:
**a) **India became a colony to export raw material and import finished goods.
**b) **Salaries of soldiers, military officers, Council members were taken from India’s resources.
**c) **Peasants were bankrupt/poor during British rule(Indigo peasants).
**d) **Indian cottage interests and handicrafts collapsed.
**e) **Indians had to pay heavy taxes, revenues and dividend to British.
13) Rise of nationalism:
**a) **Uprising of 1858, paved way for the Rise of the National Movement.
**b) **Sacrifices made by Rani Luxmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Mangal Panday inspired Indians.
**c) **Started a tradition of resistance to the British rule.
14) Depriving the Muslims:
**a) **The war ended up with the sweeping victory of the British Raj and the end of 800 years of Muslims rule.
**b) **The victory in War gave them authorities to avenge their disobedience, they made the policies later on to deprive the Muslims of their due rights in India.
**c) **They denied their due shares in employments, education, trade and finance, while the Hindus were given priority in these domains.
**d) **Posts of ink fillers, koolies and messengers were fixed for the Muslims as punishment for their audacity in 1857.
Allama Iqbal’s Presidential Address
Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal:
Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal ranks amongst the Muslim intellectuals who left a deep impact on history. He inspired the Muslims of the Sub-continent and beyond. He infused a moving spirit and identity in the Indian Muslims. He presented a framework of their political future and talked how that would help to achieve the goal of Ummah. He presented a vision and dream in his Allahabad Address.
Background:
The Hindu-Muslim question had great importance and stood crucial to British Indian history after 1857, especially in the 20th century. To Muslims, the key issue remained is "separate identity . They tried their level best to make the rival nations understand that the Muslims are a separate nation, having different culture and civilisation interests and rights. The Two Nations theory couldn’t fascinate the Hindus and the British peoples because they believed in “territorial nationalism”. The Hindus desired to absorb them in their majority but they couldn’t face the arguments of the Muslim intellectuals. By 1930, Muslims had developed a sense of identity and political demands. Iqbal delivered his presidential Address in this background.
Iqbal’s stay in Europe, 1905-08, helped to crystallize his thoughts. He returned to India in 1908 and started work on the roots of Muslim decline and the mechanism to uplift the Muslims. He reminded them to follow the teachings of the Holy Prophet(PBUH) practically as the ideal leader. He emphasized on the ideals, teachings and principles of Islam. He sought salvation through Islam.
Social positions:
He was awarded with many prominent social positions like
Title of Sir was conferred in 1922
Member of Punjab Legislative Council (1927-1930)
Allahabad Address
Allama Iqbal delivered lectures on Islam in Aligarh, Hyderabad and Madras from 1928 to 1929. At Allahabad, he presided over the meeting and delivered his famous address. The address was delivered in December 1930 in which Iqbal presented a review of the political and social situation of India and solution of the ills befalling India. He evaluated the importance of role of Islam in the lives of Muslims of Britain India. He said that the European view of duality of religion and state does not apply here in the Indian society. Rejecting the secularism he said,“Religion is not a totally personal affair”.
He explained that Islam offers an ethical order, socio-political structure, legal framework, code of life, culture and civilisation. It is a living, dynamic force that has a profound impact on the lives of Indian Muslims. With the force of Islam, the scattered and disoriented people have been turned into an organized force.
The Muslims are not willing to submerge their religious individuality. They have lack of trust and fear of domination from Hindus. If the British want any sort of internal harmony, it would be impossible unless the communal question is settled. It’s historical reality that India is a continent inhabited by diverse people. No political arrangement may be acceptable without recognizing this reality.
If the Muslims have an opportunity to develop in accordance with their Islamic civilisation and tradition, they would be willing to sacrifice their lives for India.
Federalism cannot succeed without recognizing the national identity of the Muslims.
Territorial redistribution of British India on the basis of religion has become a need of time.
Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan be amalgamated into a State, self government within the British empire or without it. The formation of such a consolidated North Western Muslim State appears to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North West India. To India, it will offer peace and security due to internal balance of power.
Islam is a people building force in India that has given moral consciousness and political identity to the people.
Iqbal’s clarification about his Allahabab Address
Following is the letter, Allama Iqbal wrote to Prof. Edward John Thompson of Oxford University:
Dr. Sir Mohd Iqbal, M.A., Ph.D. Barrister-at-Law
Lahore 4 March 1934
My dear Mr. Thompson,
I have received your review of my book. It is excellent and I am grateful to you for the very kind things you have said of me. But you have made one mistake which I hasten to point as I consider it rather serious. You call me a protagonist of the scheme “Pakistan”. Now Pakistan is not my scheme. The one that I suggested in my address is the creation of a Muslim province i.e a province having an overwhelming population of Muslims in the North West of India. This new province will be according to my scheme, a part of the proposed Indian federation. Pakistan scheme proposes a separate federation of Muslim provinces directly related to England as a separate dominion. This scene originated in Cambridge. The authors of this scheme believe that we Muslim Round Tablers have sacrificed the Muslim nation on the altar of the Hindu or the so called Indian Nationalism.
Yours Sincerely,
Mohammed Iqbal.
Importance
Iqbal’s address is the forceful and logical presentation of the Muslim case in India. Why should they be treated as a political entity rather than a minority? The answer is as follows;
Territorial adjustments will enable the Muslims to develop themselves in accordance with their ideals and serve the cause of Ummah.
Redistribution of territory developed later on the concept of Muslim homeland.
He further expressed these ideas in letters to JINNAH from May 1936 to November 1937. He talked of a separate federation of Muslim provinces. The North Western India and Bengal can be considered as entitled to self-determination like other nations in India and outside. Shariah’s development is impossible without a free Muslim state or states. He advised the Muslims to be above the self-interest and devote themselves to Islam.
In difficult times, Islam has saved the Muslims.
Faith, culture and historical traditions are more important than patriotism.
Immediate cause behind war
The revolt of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident of greased cartridges. A rumour spread that the cartridges of the new Enfield rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. Before loading ho these rifles, the Sepoys had to bit off the paper on the cartridges. Both Hindu and Muslim Sepoys refused to use them. Canning tried to make amends for the error and the offending cartridges had been done. There was unrest in several places. In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy in Barrakpore, had refused to use the cartridge and attacked his senior officers. He was hanged to death on 8 April. On 9th May,85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new rifle and were sentenced to ten years imprisonment.
4) Military causes
1) Ill treatment of Indian soldiers:
Indian soldiers were ill treated, poorly fed and badly housed. Didn’t bother about their sentiments and didn’t allow to keep beard, wear turbans, etc.
2) Lower salaries:
Indian soldiers were paid 8 times less salaries than British soldiers.
3) Deprivation of allowances:
British empire was spread across the nation and soldiers had to serve in areas away from their homes without extra payment and additional Bhatta(foreign service allowance). Free post facility for Sepoys was also taken off.
4) Less chances of promotion:
All higher posts were reserved for British( irrespective of their performances). Indian soldiers had thin chances of promotion. They couldn’t go above the post of Subedar. With promotions, the future of Indian soldiers was bleak(miserable).
5) General service enlistment act:
It was considered as Taboo for Brahmin to cross the sea. In spite of that British sent Indians overseas on duty. Didn’t bother about the sentiments.
6) Larger Indian proportion:
In 1856, 238000 Indian soldiers worked in British army as compared to 45,322 British soldiers.
7 ) Faculty distribution of troops:
Strategic important places like Delhi and Allahabad had no British armies and was held by only Indian soldiers. When England was bust in fighting wars outside Indian soldiers decided to strike British.
8) Poor performance of British troops:
Without support of Indian soldiers, British army was weak. This fact was realized by Indian soldiers. Also in various other wars, British had to face defeat, this broke the myth that British were invincible.
2) Socio-religious causes
By rapid spread of Western civilisation in India, a large section of the population was alarmed by it. An act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a Hindu who had converted into Charistainity to inherit his ancestral properties. Besides, the missionaries were allowed to make convertions into Charistainity all over India. The people were convinced that the Government was planning to convert Indians into Charistainity.
The abolition of practices like Sati and female infanticide, and the legislation legalizing widow remarriage, were threats to the established social structure. Even the introduction of railways and telegraph was viewed with suspicion.
3) Economic causes
Following are the main economic causes for war of independence;
1) Exploitation of economic exploitation:
India was forced to export cotton, silk at cheap rate to England.
forced plantation of Indigo and Tea.
Indians had to accept ready made British goods.
Indian’s hand made products couldn’t compete with machine made British goods.
problem of unemployment increased.
India had no agricultural surplus which raised prices of raw materials in India.
2) Drain of wealth:
After the Battle of Plassey, British stopped bringing gold to Indai. Raw material was bought in England from the surplus revenues of Bengal and started looting India’s raw materials, resources and wealth. The transfer of wealth from India to England is called Drain of wealth.
3) Decay of cottage industries and Handicrafts:
heavy duties killed Indian cottage industries and Handicrafts.
imported British goods worsened thier condition.
Export of cotton and silk was ceased.
Art of spinning and weaving was killed, creating severe unemployment.
Absence of Royal buyers, Princes, Zamindars, etc.
4) Growing unemploymen:
Unemployment was continuously increasing.
**5) Inhuman treatment of Indigo cultivation:
Forced plantation of Indigo and other crops were destroyed, didn’t follow the orders and cattle were taken away as punishment.
6) Poverty and famines:
There were 12 minor famines but British did not bother.
7 ) Economic decline of peasantry:
Peasants had to pay high taxes and land revenues.
8 ) Decline of landed Aristocracy:
Hereditary landlords and Taluqdars ’ 2000 estates were confiscated(who couldn’t produce evidences of ownership) and auctioned. Merchants and moneylendets bought these estates and exploited tenants.
Causes behind war of Independence
Following are the main causes of war:
political causes
2)Socio-religious causes
3)Economic causes
4)Military causes
5)Emmidiate causes
Political causes
Following are the main political causes:
1) British policy of expansion:
The British expanded their political power in India in the following four ways;
By outright war:
To expand their territory in India, British fought many wars such as
War of Buxar(BBO)
Anglo Mysore War
Third Anglo Maratha War
Second Anglo-Sikh War
2) System of Subsidiary Alliance:
Lord Wllesley introduced the system in which Indian States were brought under the British control without annexing them. Under this system, Indian rulers agreed to;
Accept British as Supreme Power
End foreign relations and wouldn’t enter any alliance/wars.
British resident at their HQ and couldn’t employ any European without consulting.
Maintain British troops at their own coast.
Virtually lost independence.
3) Doctrine of Lapse;
Lord Dallhouse annexed many Indian states using Doctrine of Lapse according to which heirs adopted without consent of the company could inherit only the private property of the deceased ruler and his territory would come under the Company’s rule.
Examples:
in 1853, ruler of Jhansi died without natural heir. Widow Rani was retired and their adopted son Anand Rao wasn’t recognized as the successor to the throne.
States of Satara, Nagpur, Udaipur, etc had same problems.
**4) On the pretext of Alleged Misrule
Annexation of Awadh:**
Lord Dallhouse annexed Awadh on 13 February, 1856 on the pretext of Alleged Misrule. British broke thier promises given to ruling chiefs.
People had to face more hardships, had to pay higher taxes, and revenues, problems of unemployment arose, property was confiscated, 75,000 were worst affected and didn’t like what British did in Awadh.
Disrespect shown to Bhadur Shah:
Bahadur Shah, a mughal ruler was under protection of the company but after his death, Lord Dallhouse announced that ruler’s widow Zeenat Mahal and successor can’t Red Fort as Palace and in 1956 Lord Canning announced that the successors can’t use the imperial titles. This hurt sentiments of Muslims.
Treatment given to Nana Sahib And Rani Luxmi Bai:
Baji-Rao-|| the last Pashwa was under the protection of Company but after his death, they refused to pay the grant to the ruler’s adopted son i.e Nana Sahib. He was sent to Kanpur away from Poona. He then travelled to create awareness about British policies.
Rani Luxmi Bai of Jhansi- victim of Doctrine of Lapse became bitter enemy. Other rules also had a double role in the British.
Absentee sovereignty of the British( Indians wealth drained to England):
India was being ruled by British from England, Unlike other rulers like Mughals who sent the revenue collected from India in India. But, in case of the British, Indians felt that wealth of the India was drained to England and wasn’t used for the welfare of Indians.
War of independence
Background:
British paramounting i.e. the belief in British dominance in Indian political, economic and cultural life, had been introduced in India about 1820.
To control the Indian states, British increasingly used a variety of tactics.
Everywhere, the old Indian Aristocracy was replaced by British officials.
Lord Dallhouse devised the doctrine of Lapse in the late 1840, which involved the British prohibiting a Hindu-ruler without a natural heir from adopting a successor, and after the ruler died or abdicated, annexing his hand.
This lead growing discontent of the Brahmas, many of whom had been dispossessed of their revenues or had lost lucrative positions.
Westernization increased in the Hindu-society.
Humanitarian movement led to reforms. Lord
Dallhouse during his tenure(1848-1856) made efforts toward emanicipating women and had introduced a bill to remove all legal obstacles to remarriage of Hindu-widows.
Converts to Christianity were to share with their Hindu relatives in the property of the family estate.
British aimed at breaking down the caste system. The introduction of western methods of education were a direct challenge to orthodoxy, both Hindu and Muslim.
Enfield Rifle:
In 1856. The Government of India introduced the Enfield rifle in the army and the agreements for its training were made at DUMDUM Ambala and Sialkot Lord Macauly education policy in sub-continent.
Introduction:
War of independence is an important landmark in the history of Sub-continent. This war was fought in 1857 by Indians against the British in order to get rid of their dominion.
Another names:
War of Independence is also given names as
Indian Rebellion
Indian Mutiny
Indian Revolt
Uprising of 1857
Great Rebellion
Sepoy Mutiny(by British)
bolded text
Starting:
It started from Meerut on 10th May, 1857.
On the issue of Cartridges made up of fat or pigs which needed to take into mouth before operating it. Mangala Panday a native soldier of the 13th native infantry fired at his British officers (2). As a result, he was caught and hanged on April 8, 1857. The soldier refused to use this weaponry and revolted against the British Crown.
Assessments of Lucknow Pact
The assessments of the Lucknow Pact are as follows:
1) Realization of two communities:
Muslim League and Congress agreed to separate electorates which means Congress realization of two different communities in India with separate interest of thier own that finally resulted in partition of India in 1947.
2) Recognization of Muslim minority:
The weightage to Muslim minority was recognized, the result was that this left the way open to the future resurgence of communalism in Indian politics.
3) Muslim leaders strength:
In Legislature, the Muslim leaders strength was laid down province-by-province, thus one of the most dangerous policies of Congress not only recognized communal representation but also communal privileges.
4) Condition of legislature to work:
Any legislature couldn’t not work if 3/4th member of any legislation opposed it, its consequence was introduction of communal veto in legislature.
5) Muslim representation:
Muslim representation in the Imperial Legislative Council was stated to be 1/3rd, although their population was not 1/3rd.
6) Mulim League in national politics:
Till Lucknow Pact, Muslim League was nowhere in the national politics.
7) Political party representing Muslims:
Due to this Pact, Muslim League recognized that Muslim League is a political party that represents the Muslims of India. INC leaders though they were sacrificing their seal in the legislature yet, they failed to understand its logical implications and partition in the offing.
Failure if Lucknow Pact
The agreement was very outstanding and its dreams were fulfilled, the whole political scenario of Indian Sub-continent was different. But, it was impossible for the parties to make a united India. The Hindus and Muslima are two different nations and they have different culture and civilisation. Therefore Lucknow Pact failed to make a long lasting cooperation in India among the Muslims and Hindus.
Importance of Lucknow Pact
The Lucknow Pact was a bright chapter in the dark and gloomy environs of the Indian political history marred with the communal strife and narrow mindedness. It was a political agreement which set in a new path leading towards a happy and prosperous future. The Lucknow Pact created political homogeneity between the two separate entities, Hindus and Muslims.
Features of the Lucknow Pact
The features of the Lucknow Pact are as follows:
There shall be a self-government in India.
The India council must be abolished.
The salaries of the Secretary of State for Indian affairs should be paid by the Gritush Government and not from Induam funds.
The esecutine must be separated by the judiciary.
Muslims should be given 1/3 representation in the Central Government.
There should be separate electorates for all communities until a they ask for joint electorate.
A system of weightage kro minority political representation( giving minorities more representation than proportional to thier share of the population) should be adopted.
The number of members of the Central Legislative Council should be increased to 150.
The term of Legislative Council should be 5 years.
President should be elected by the members of the Legislative Council.
Half of the members of the Imperial Legislative Council must be Indians.
At the provincial level, four-fifth of the members of the Leguslative Councils should be laid down province by province.
Except nominated, all the members should be elected directly on the basis of adult franchise.
list item
Muslim League and Congress in Lucknow Pact
1. Bombay meeting:
The extrimusts under Tilak and the moderates under Gokhle met at Bombay where Muslim League joined them to draft a set of minimum constitutional demand through mutual consultations, thus giving Ian idea of illustrating Hindu-Muslim Unity. For the 1st time the principal leaders of two parties assembled at one place. The speeches made from the platform of both groups were similar in tone and theme.
2. Ambassador of Hindu-Musli Unity:
Within a few months of the Bombay meetings 19 Muslim and Hindu elected members of the Imperial Legislative joined a referendum to the viceroy on the subject of reforms in October, 1916. At a subsequent meeting of the Congress and the Muslim League at Calcutta in November, 1916, thier suggestions were discussed , amended and accepted. The agreement was confirmed by the annual sessions of the Congress held at Lucknowon December 29 and Decembe 31 ,1916, respectively. Sarojini Naidu gave Jinnah, the chief architect of the Lucknow Pact, the title of **"the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity. "
3. Lucknow Pact:
Thus, for the 1st time in history, Muslim League and Indian National Congress worked together to present a set o f demands to British which came to be known as the "Lucknow Pact "
Jinnah and the Pact
Jinnah arise as a devoted champion of Hindu-Muslim Unity, for the better of India he convinced All-India Muslim league to change the policies. M. Ali Jinnah in his early career was a member of both the Congress and the Muslim League and was well known as a member free of any religious prejudice, as well as a great advocate and debater. The Muslim League and the Congress had their annual meeting in the Bombay in 1915 only due the his efforts. At the end of this meeting, a committee was formed with the intention to sort the common understanding between the two communities. The committee prepared a scheme in November, 1916 that was approved by both the the parties in December, 1916, at the respective sessions at Lucknow. At Lucknow, Quaid-e-Azam in his presidential address said:
" Indias real progress can only be achieved by a true understanding and harmonious relations between the two great communities. With regard to our own affairs, we can depend upon nobody but ourselves."
Reasons for the Lucknow Pact
The main reasons for the Lucknow Pact are as follows:
The All-India Muslim League came into existence as a moderate organization with its basic aim is to establish friendly relations with the British Crown. But, the Muslim Leadership decided to change its stance due to the decision made by the British Government to anul the partition of Bengal.
A new group of Muslim leaders joined the Muslim League with a much different view than their predecessors. The Muslims made hostile to the British due to the indifferent policy of England towards the Caliph of Turkey as the Caliph was regarded as the religious head of the Muslims all over world.
At the end of the war, Lord Chelmsford had invited suggestions from the Indians for post world war 1 reforms. So, naturally Muslim League which was on the sidelines of the country politics by that time would like to come ahead to get a better share in the expected giveaways of reforms.
Introduction:
Lucknow Pact refers to an agreement reached between the Indian National Congrss and the Muslim League at the joint session of both the parties, held in Lucknow in 1916 by Gangadhar Tilak and All India Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The Congress adopted it at its Lucknow Session on 29 December and the League adopted it on 31 December, 1916. Thus meeting at Lucknow marked the reunion of the moderate and radical wings of the Congress. This pact dealt the structure of the government of India as well as the relation of Hindu and Muslim communities.
Background:
The main historical points in the background of Lucknow Pact 1916 are as follows;
1.) 1st Word War:
1st World War started in 1914.
2.) Indian Sacrifice:
Indians sacrificed a lot in terms of lives, manpowe, supplies, finances and patience with high prices of wheat, kerosene, rice, etc.
3.) Turkey Issue:
There were reservations of Muslims about Turkey and they wanted to dispel their pro-British reputation.
4.) Participation in governing the Sub- continent:
The Lucknow Pact between the Muslim league and the Congress was led due to the growing determination to participate in the governing of Sub- continent.
5.) Quaid-eAzam:
The joining of the Muslim League by Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah gave a new determination to Indian policies.
6.) Self rule:
Muslim League had already demanded self rule for India as had the Congress.
7.) Separate electorates:
The Muims were demanding separate electorates. Both the parties were demanding same privileges.
8.) Persuading the government:
Leaders from both sides agreed to cooperate to bring the government around to accept their demands.
What were the consequences of war of independence?
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Consequences of war of independence
The consequences of war of independence are as follows:
1) End of the East India company’s rule:- Crown took over the change from Company.
- Secretary of State of India was appointed who reported to British Parliament.
2) Queen Victoria’s Proclamation: - The transfer of government was done on 1 November, 1958 at Allahabad.
- Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India, promised not to intervene in religious and social matters, would bring equality, pardon soldiers, best for Indian Industries.
3) End of Mughals and Peshwa:
Bahadur Shah-|| went to Yangon and Nana Sahib went to Nepal. Two foes of British came to an end.
4) Relations with Princely States:
Policy of Annexation and Doctrine of Lapse were abandoned.
5) Policy of Divide & Rule:
After 1858, British started Divide & Rule policy i.e Caste against Caste, Princes against people and Hindus against Muslims.
6) Winding gulf between Hindus & Muslims:
British sowed seeds of hatred between Hindus and Muslims.
7) Racial Antagonism:
British believed that they were superior and maintained distance from Indians. Railways, Parks, hotels, etc had seats " Reserved for Europeans only".
8) Increased racial bitterness:
British believed that Indians aren’t trust worthy and remodeled the structure of Indian government based on an idea of a superior race.
9) Religious changes:
British rulers declared that they would not intervene in religious affairs, customs and traditions.
10) Foreign policy:
Indian foreign policy was decided by British within two aims:
a. Protection of its Indian empire.
b. Expansion of British economic and commercial interests.
11) Changes in Army:
To avoid another uprising, Indian army was recognized after 1858 in the following matter:
**a) No. of Indian troops was decreased to 1,40,000 and no. of Eurpean troops was increased to 65,000.
**b) **European troops were kept in key locations.
**c) **Policy of excluding Indians from officer positions was strictly followed.
**c) **Weapons were never placed under the charge of Indians.
**d) **Divide & Rile policy was practiced during the recruitment in the army. Discouraged nationalism through caste/religion discrimination in regiments.
**e) **Soldiers were not allowed to read newspapers & journals.
12) Economic exploitation:
**a) **India became a colony to export raw material and import finished goods.
**b) **Salaries of soldiers, military officers, Council members were taken from India’s resources.
**c) **Peasants were bankrupt/poor during British rule(Indigo peasants).
**d) **Indian cottage interests and handicrafts collapsed.
**e) **Indians had to pay heavy taxes, revenues and dividend to British.
13) Rise of nationalism:
**a) **Uprising of 1858, paved way for the Rise of the National Movement.
**b) **Sacrifices made by Rani Luxmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Mangal Panday inspired Indians.
**c) **Started a tradition of resistance to the British rule.
14) Depriving the Muslims:
**a) **The war ended up with the sweeping victory of the British Raj and the end of 800 years of Muslims rule.
**b) **The victory in War gave them authorities to avenge their disobedience, they made the policies later on to deprive the Muslims of their due rights in India.
**c) **They denied their due shares in employments, education, trade and finance, while the Hindus were given priority in these domains.
**d) **Posts of ink fillers, koolies and messengers were fixed for the Muslims as punishment for their audacity in 1857.
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The War of Independence, also known as the First War of Indian Independence or the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, had profound and far-reaching consequences for the Indian subcontinent. Here are the major consequences:
Political Consequences:
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End of the Mughal Empire:
- The rebellion marked the end of the Mughal Empire. The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was deposed, and the empire was formally dissolved by the British authorities.
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Establishment of Direct British Rule:
- The British East India Company, which had governed large parts of India, was dissolved. The administration of India was taken over directly by the British Crown, leading to the establishment of the British Raj.
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Administrative Reorganization:
- The British government reorganized the administrative structure of India. The British Crown established a more centralized form of control, with significant changes to the governance and administrative practices.
Social and Economic Consequences:
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Economic Exploitation:
- The British Raj intensified economic exploitation. Policies were introduced that drained resources from India and further integrated the Indian economy into the global capitalist system, often at the expense of local industries and agriculture.
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Land Reforms and Revenue Policies:
- The British implemented new land revenue systems and land reforms, such as the Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari System. These often led to increased hardship for peasants and changes in land ownership patterns.
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Social Repression and Changes:
- The British authorities enacted policies that disrupted traditional social structures and practices. There was an increase in social repression and efforts to reform certain social practices, which were sometimes met with resistance.
Military and Strategic Consequences:
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Strengthening of British Military Presence:
- The British strengthened their military presence and established a more robust and disciplined army in India to prevent future uprisings. The structure and organization of the Indian army were reorganized.
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Strategic Changes:
- The British focused on strengthening their strategic control over key areas and regions of India, leading to a more consolidated and effective control over the subcontinent.
Cultural and Psychological Impact:
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Rise of Nationalism:
- The rebellion was a significant factor in the rise of Indian nationalism. It sparked a sense of unity and identity among Indians and laid the groundwork for future independence movements.
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Cultural and Political Awakening:
- The events of 1857 influenced Indian intellectuals and leaders. It led to a cultural and political awakening, which saw the emergence of various reform movements and political organizations advocating for Indian rights and autonomy.
Legacy and Historical Interpretation:
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British Perspective:
- The British government and historians of the time often labeled the rebellion as a “mutiny” or “sepoy revolt” rather than a war of independence. This perspective shaped the British narrative of the events.
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Indian Perspective:
- In Indian historiography, the rebellion is often viewed as the First War of Independence or a significant uprising against colonial rule. It is seen as a crucial precursor to later independence movements and the eventual struggle for freedom.
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Historical Memory:
- The rebellion has been remembered and commemorated in various ways in India, with literature, films, and public discourse reflecting its significance in the national consciousness.
In summary, the War of Independence of 1857 had a lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent, leading to the end of Mughal rule, the establishment of direct British control, significant social and economic changes, and the rise of Indian nationalism. It set the stage for future struggles for independence and shaped the course of Indian history in the years that followed.
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